Groundwater restoration: landscape architecture
for active groundwater recharge
Haruka Yoshimura,
Ph.D.
Global groundwater depletion
Fig.
1 In recognition
that wetlands and forests play a crucial role in groundwater recharge, shaping
landscapes of active recharge function is essential. New paradigms in land
planning and management with the strategic vision on groundwater restoration
are required.
Global groundwater depletion
As a primary source of drinking water and
for irrigated agriculture, groundwater is the main source of water in many
parts of the world (Alley et al. 2002; MacDonald et al. 2012). Globally,
agriculture is the largest consumer of water, accounting for more than 70% of
freshwater withdrawals (Shiklomanov 2000; Siebert et al. 2010). Groundwater use
for irrigation is estimated as 43% of the total consumptive irrigation water
use (Siebert et al. 2010). In the United States, 60% of irrigation relies on
groundwater (Scanlon et al. 2012).
In the United States, center-pivot
irrigation became available after World War II, using groundwater resources
including fossil groundwater aquifers such as the Ogallala Aquifer.
Overexploitation of groundwater in the United States already induces continuous
groundwater-level decline threatening future crop production (Sanlon et al.
2012).
Since the early 1950s, new schemes have
planned to develop the groundwater in the vast arid areas of North Africa
(Lloyd and Farag 1978) and Arabia (Lloyd and Pim 1990) to facilitate social
development, economic growth and to ensure food security (Sowers et al. 2011).
During the planning it has been generally assumed that the groundwater was a
static reservoir, which would not be disturbed by artificial water withdrawals.
But the dramatically increased use of groundwater resources induces serious
consequences (Jaber and Mohsen 2001; Konikow and Kendy 2005; Foster and Loucks
2006; Salameh 2008; FAO 2009; Edmunds 2012; Voss et al. 2013): significant
water-level decline; increasing groundwater salinity; aquifer contamination;
degradation of ecosystems and agricultural lands; and socio-economic impacts
such as human migration to major cities, as well as conflict among water users
(e.g., Foster and Loucks 2006; Jasem et al. 2011).
The major groundwater resources in the
semiarid and arid zones have rested in “fossil aquifers” for thousands or
even millions of years and present recharge is very limited or negligible due
to lack of precipitation coupled with high evaporation rate (Sharaf and Hussein
1996; Thorweihe and Heinl 2002; Edmunds 2009). Therefore, overexploitation or
persistent groundwater depletion—the extraction of
groundwater at a rate that exceeds the rate of natural recharge—can easily occur
(Gleick 1998; Gleeson et al. 2010; Wada et al. 2010).
Water is an important commodity, in that
liquid water supports terrestrial ecosystems, including most human food
production. Furthermore, water supply also plays an integral role in economic
development, community well-being, and cultural values. The current global
situation of over-reliance on the non-renewable resource of groundwater is not
sustainable in the long term (Konikow and Kendy 2005; Rodell et al. 2009; Wada
et al. 2010). New approaches to long-term water planning and management that
incorporate principles of sustainability are urgently required (e.g., Gleick
1998; Salameh 2008).
Groundwater recharge and interaction with the
landscape above
Recharge can be defined generally as
addition of water to an aquifer or, more strictly, addition of water from the
overlying unsaturated zone or surface water body (Alley et al. 2002; Scanlon et
al. 2006). Natural replenishment of groundwater mainly occurs from diffuse
rain-fed recharge and focused recharge.
Diffuse (direct) recharge is the water movement from
land surface to the water table infiltrating and percolating through the
unsaturated zone as a result of precipitation and/or irrigation distributes
over large areas. Focused, indirect, or localized recharge refers to the
movement of water from surface water bodies (perennial rivers, ephemeral
streams, wetlands and lakes) to the groundwater system and is less uniform in
space than diffuse recharge (Alley et al. 2002; Scanlon et al. 2006; Taylor et
al. 2013).
It is increasingly recognized that
groundwater systems are closely linked with the regional climate, the landscape
above and the biosphere (Alley et al. 2002; Scanlon et al. 2006; Edmunds 2009;
Taylor et al. 2013).
Ecosystems provide hydrologic services
integrated with a variety of other essential services (Vitousek et al. 1997; De
Groot et al. 2002; Brauman et al. 2007), including high temperature
amelioration, regional climate control, and carbon dioxide sequestration. In
particular, forest biomes represent the largest biomass with ecological
complexity and have a significant role in groundwater recharge (e.g. Kaiser and
Roumasset 2002).
Recent research shows that the California
Central Valley aquifer, a rapidly depleting fossil groundwater aquifer in the
United States, is receiving from the surrounding mountains such as the Sierra
Nevada Mountains and the Klamath Mountains (Scanlon et al. 2012), which are
covered with green forests. In Africa, the North Western Sahara Aquifer System
is receiving considerable recharge by the present-day precipitation (Al-Gamal
2011). The Atlas Mountains, remain of remnant Atlas cedar forests
(Terrab et al. 2008; Linares et al. 2011), may play a role in groundwater
recharge. Active diffuse recharge to groundwater aquifers is one of most
important hydrologic functions of forests.
In recognition that wetlands (perennial
rivers, ephemeral streams, ponds and lakes) and forests play a crucial role in
groundwater recharge, shaping the landscapes of active recharge (wetlands and
forests) is essential for replenishment of groundwater aquifers (Fig. 1).
Strategic land planning and management for
restoring groundwater: A case in a rural area in Japan
Historically, groundwater is the primary source of
drinking water for the population of Japan. Therefore, a sustainable supply
of high-quality groundwater had been considered an important core
issue of governance in traditional Eastern philosophy.
Recognizing that wetlands and deep
forests play a crucial role in groundwater recharge, unique landscape design of
massive human-made ponds in strategic land planning and management for
restoring groundwater was developed in ancient Japan (Fig. 2). In the strategic
land planning and management, the role of human-made ponds is not only
restricted to agricultural use to store water for irrigation of rice paddies,
but also is used to improve the focused recharge to groundwater
aquifers and control watershed hydrology.
Rapid restoration of deep forests in degraded lands
requires adequate water. The massive human-made wetlands store precipitation
and surface water, in turn subsequent infiltration provides a low-cost,
self-sufficient method of irrigation for rapid restoration of riparian forests.
Massive ponds and riparian forests contribute rapid regional forest recovery
sequentially. Deep riparian forests and forested mountains contribute
maintenance/restoration of high-quality groundwater.
Shrines/Temples have been built to protect sites of “strategic importance,” deep forested mountains as sacred groves, high-quality groundwater wells as divine springs.
The historical land planning of restoration of groundwater by means of shaping landscapes of massive ponds and deep riparian forests is traceable in old maps (Fig. 2).
 |
Fig. 2 Old map of a rural area in Japan (The
Geographical Survey Institute of the Imperial Japan, 1916), depicting an
example of strategic land planning for restoring groundwater. To secure a
sustainable supply of high-quality groundwater, massive human-made ponds were
constructed. In this map (Okayama Prefecture), the Japanese character “池” meaning ‘pond,’ indicates as many as 31
major human-made ponds within an area of about 9 km2.
Groundwater restoration integrated with regional
cooling strategy
The effects of groundwater depletion on
crop and food production are already evident in several regions of the world.
Taking into account the importance of a sustainable supply of high-quality
groundwater in food security, radical changes in water resource governance
towards restoration of active groundwater aquifer recharge function is
inevitable.
Fig. 3 Leaf area index (LAI), a ratio of leaf area to
per unit ground surface area, is a dimensionless variable. Schematic diagram of
(a) urban structure made of concrete and asphalt, (b) grassland and (c)
primordial temperate forest, showing relationship with LAI. The mature forests
with high LAI have evolved in such a way that vertically stratified structure
of canopy foliage effectively alters solar radiation balance and cools the air
by transpiration, contributing regional cooling. Deep forests have a significant
role in groundwater recharge and in maintenance/restoration of high-quality
groundwater.
Temperature is an important factor in
total water management. Increase in temperature accelerates reduction in soil
moisture, which in turn damage crops and reduce yields. Higher temperatures increase total evaporation
loss from lands such as irrigated areas.
High temperatures even a few days during
the flowering and grain filling phases drastically reduce productivity of
important agricultural crops (e.g., rice, wheat, maize and sorghum)—high temperature
stress (heat stress). As current temperatures are already at critical levels
during sensitive stages of cereal grain development, the prediction of rising global
temperatures and extreme temperature events caused by climate change could
threaten global food security. To reduce the risks of high temperature stress,
shaping landscapes of wetlands and high LAI vegetation (Fig. 3) is a productive
solution as regional cooling strategy (http://harukanoor2.blogspot.jp/). The regional
cooling strategy contributes evaporation loss control, which is beneficial for
total water management.
Shaping landscapes of massive human-made
wetlands and high LAI vegetation in large-scale has benefits for climate
amelioration and for regional water management via groundwater restoration and
evaporation loss control. In order to secure agricultural productivity, broad
investment is urgently needed. On the basis of food and water security strategy,
decisions for land planning and
management need to be taken by policy-makers and practitioners.
References
Al-Gamal SA (2011)
An assessment of recharge possibility to North-Western Sahara Aquifer System
(NWSAS) using environmental isotopes. J. Hydrol. 398:184–190. doi:
10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.12.004
Alley WM, Healy RW,
LaBaugh JW, Reilly TE (2002) Flow and storage in groundwater systems. Science
296:1985–1990. doi:
10.1126/science.1067123
Brauman KA, Daily
GC, Duarte TK, Mooney HA (2007) The nature and value of ecosystem services: an
overview highlighting hydrologic services. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 32:67–98. doi:
10.1146/annurev.energy.32.031306.102758
De Groot RS, Wilson MA, Boumans RMJ (2002) A typology for the classification,
description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol.
Econ. 41:393–408. doi:
10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00089-7
Edmunds WM (2009)
Palaeoclimate and groundwater evolution in Africa—implications for adaptation and
management, Hydrol. Sci. J. 54:781–792. 10.1623/hysj.54.4.781
Edmunds WM (2012)
Limits to the availability of groundwater in Africa. Environ. Res. Lett.
7:021003. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/021003
FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2009) Groundwater management
in Saudi Arabia, Draft synthesis report. FAO, Rome.
Foster S, Loucks DP
(2006) Non-Renewable Groundwater Resources — A Guidebook on
Socially Sustainable Management for Water-Policy Makers, Series on Groundwater
No. 10, UNESCO IHP, Paris.
Gleeson T,
VanderSteen J, Sophocleous MA, Taniguchi M, Alley WM, Allen DM, Zhou Y (2010)
Groundwater sustainability strategies. Nat. Geosci. 3:378–379. doi:
10.1038/ngeo881
Gleick PH (1998)
Water in crisis: paths to sustainable water use. Ecol. Appl. 8:571–579. doi:
10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0571:WICPTS]2.0.CO;2
Jaber JO, Mohsen MS
(2001) Evaluation of
non-conventional water resources supply in Jordan. Desalination 136:83–92. doi:
10.1016/S0011-9164(01)
Jasem AH, Shammout
M, AlRousan D, AlRaggad M (2011) The fate of Disi aquifer as stratigic
groundwater reserve for shared countries (Jordan and Saudi Arabia). J Water
Res. Prot. 3:711–714.
doi:10.4236/jwarp.2011.310081
Kaiser B, Roumasset
J (2002) Valuing indirect ecosystem services: the case of tropical watersheds.
Environ. Develop. Econ. 7:701–714. doi:
10.1017/S1355770X02000426
Konikow LF, Kendy E
(2005) Groudwater depletion: A global problem. Hydrogeol. J. 13:317–320. doi:
10.1007/s10040-004-0411-8
Linares JC, Taïqui L, Camarero JJ
(2011) Increasing drought sensitivity and decline of Atlas cedar (Cedrus
atlantica) in the Moroccan Middle Atlas forests. Forests 2: 777–796. doi:
10.3390/f2030777
Lloyd JW, Farag MH
(1978) Fossil Ground-water gradients in arid regional sedimentary basins.
Ground Water 16:388–393.
Lloyd JW, Pim RH
(1990) The hydrogeology and groundwater resources development of the
Cambro-Ordovician sandstone aquifer in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. J. Hydrol.
121:1–20. doi.
10.1016/0022-1694(90)90221-I
MacDonald AM,
Bonsor HC, Dochartaigh BÉÓ, Taylor RG (2012)
Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa. Environ. Res. Lett.
7:024009. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009
Rodell M, Velicogna
I, Famiglietti JS (2009) Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in
India. Nature 460:999–1001.
doi:10.1038/nature08238
Salameh E (2008)
Over-exploitation of groundwater resources and their environmental and
socio-economic implications: the case of Jordan. Wat. Int. 33:55–68. doi:
101080/02508060801927663
Scanlon BR, Keese
KE, Flint AL, Flint LE, Gaye CB, Edmunds WM, Simmers I (2006) Global synthesis
of groundwater recharge in semiarid and arid regions. Hydrol. Process. 20:3335–3370. doi:
10.1002/hyp.6335
Scanlon BR, Faunt
CC, Longuevergne L, Reedy RC, Alley WM, McGuire VL, McMahon PB (2012)
Groundwater depletion and sustainability of irrigation in the US High Plains
and Central Valley. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109: 9320–9325. doi:
10.1073/pnas.1200311109
Sharaf MA, Hussein
MT (1996) Groundwater quality in the Saq aquifer, Saudi Arabia. Hydrol. Sci. J.
41:683–696. doi:
10.1080/02626669609491539
Shiklomanov IA
(2000) Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources. Wat. Int. 25:11–32. doi:
10.1080/02508060008686794
Siebert S, Burke J,
Faures JM, Frenken K, Hoogeveen J, Döll P, Portmann FT (2010) Groundwater use for irrigation – a global inventory.
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 14:1863–1880.
doi:10.5194/hess-14-1863-2010
Sowers J, Vengosh
A, Weinthal E (2011) Climate change, water resources, and the politics of
adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa. Clim. Change 104:599–627. doi:
10.1007/s10584-010-9835-4
Taylor RG, Scanlon
B, Döll P, Rodell M, van
Beek R, Wada Y, Longuevergne L, Leblanc M, Famiglietti JS, Edmunds M, Konikow
L, Green TR, Chen J, Taniguchi M, Bierkens MFP, MacDonald A, Fan Y, Maxwell RM,
Yechieli Y, Gurdak JJ, Allen DM, Shamsudduha M, Hiscock K, Yeh PJ-F, Holman I, Treidel H (2013) Ground water and
climate change. Nature Clim. Change 3:322–329. doi:10.1038/nclimate1744
Terrab A, Hampe A,
Lepais O, Talavera S, Vela E, Stuessy TF (2008) Phylogeography of North African
Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica, Pinaceae): Combined molecular and fossil
data reveal a complex Quaternary history. Am. J. Bot. 95:1262–1269. doi:
10.3732/ajb.0800010
Thorweihe U, Heinl
M (2002). Groundwater resources of the Nubian Aquifer System NE-Africa.
Modified synthesis submitted to: Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel. OSS,
Paris, 23 pp.
Vitousek PM, Mooney
HA, Lubchenco J, Melillo JM (1997) Human domination of Earth's ecosystems. Science
277:494–499. doi:
10.1126/science.277.5325.494
Voss KA,
Famiglietti JS, Lo M, de Linage C, Rodell M, Swenson SC (2013) Groundwater
depletion in the Middle East from GRACE with implications for transboundary
water management in the Tigris-Euphrates-Western Iran region. Water Resour.
Res. 49:904–914.
doi:10.1002/wrcr.20078
Wada Y, van Beek
LPH, van Kempen CM, Reckman JWTM, Vasak S, Bierkens MFP (2010) Global depletion
of groundwater resources. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37:L20402.
doi:10.1029/2010GL044571
